Future of Nanotechnology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Future of Nanotechnology - Research Paper Example With the advancement in the field of nanotechnology, it has been noticed that even the human organs can be regenerated with the application of technology of nano-thin sheets. The regeneration of the human organs is done by layering the thin sheets of tissues which are specifically created with the help of nano-order thin sheets. It should also be noted that the risk of any medical complication have been relatively decreased by large as nano technology has come at the medical forefront. This is mainly because the layers are created by selecting the cells from the patient’s own body (Newell-McGloughlin and Re 2011). This minimized the risk of transplantation reactions, which have been noted in the traditional approaches of regeneration of human organs. Another important fact to be noted here is that with the increase of medical therapies through the aid of nanotechnology, it is being considered that the pace of surgeries is more likely to increase. Consequently, this will help i n the positive patient outcome and lowered risk of health complications (Newell-McGloughlin and Re 2011). Followed by the previously discussed applications of nanotechnology in human life, it should also be discussed that nanotechnology has also made a great contribution in the automobile industry. The reward of the application of nanotechnology in the field of automobile is its light weight of automobiles. Nanotechnology is also useful to produce hydrogen ions from fuels such as, menthol in order to reduce the cost of catalysts in fuels. Intellectuals have noticed that companies with the help of nanoparticles started making batteries. There are two types of batteries on which companies are working these days (Dvorsky 2012). Convention batteries, which will efficiently work, after charging it for a long time and another one is a battery which can be charged in short time, but it works for many hours. Fuel consumption has also been reduced with the help of advancement in nanotechnolo gy. It helps to produce fuel for low-grade raw material, which helps increase the mileage of engines. Moreover, researchers have observed that space flights have become more practical and advanced with the help of nanotechnology (Dvorsky 2012). c. Nanotechnology and Micro machines: Currently, researchers have noticed that nanotechnology has given rise to micro robotic system and development of this system can be observed

Milt Jackson Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Milt Jackson - Essay Example As a member of a Gospel Quartet, Milt got the first chance to perform in public in which he sang tenor. Dizzy Gillespie was instrumental in bringing this great jazz artist to the forefront and Gillespie, hearing his performance at a Detroit night club, brought Milt to New York to perform with his sextet and later with his big band. Milt also had the opportunity to work with great artists such as Howard McGee, Thelonius Monk, Charlie Parker and Woody Herman in the late 1940s. Again he worked with Dizzy between 1950 and 1952, while also recording some Quartet sides with John Lewis, Percy Heath and Kenny Clarke. The big band, renamed as The Modern Jazz Quartet in 1952, played a major role in the next twenty-two years Milt's career and the quartet, which recorded over thirty albums and toured all over the world, also had a prominent place in his career. "By 1974 the MJQ disbanded, and Jackson started a career as a leader of his own groups, performing blues and gospel-oriented Jazz, away from the musical policy of the MJQ. He became associated with producer Norwman Granz, and recorded some twenty albums with some of the finest musicians associated with the producer's label, like Oscar Peterson, Count Basie, Ray Brown, Dizzy Gillespie, etc. In 1981 the MJQ was reunited to perform in Japan and since then Jackson has been combining his own projects with occasional touring with the MJQ." (Milt Jackson: Biography) Therefore, the career development as well as biography of the vibes player Milt Jackson centered on his accomplishments in jazz and this paper undertakes such a biographical account of this great vibraphonist, focusing on his achievements in jazz. As the first vibraphonist to use a slow vibrato, Milt Jackson revolutionized and extended the limits of the vibraharp. The use a slow vibrato helped him in the creation of impulsive outbursts of short notes as well as a better control of the dynamics. "He discovered new possibilities in his instrument, influencing every vibraphonist to follow. With his gift for melodic improvisation Jackson is a master of ballad interpretation, and remains one of the most soulful players in the history of Jazz." (Milt Jackson: Biography) Born in Detroit and Died as one of the most soulful players in the history of Jazz, Jackson had become a conspicuously importantmusician by the middle of his teen-age years and he started to learn guitar at the age of 7, piano lessons at11, and mastered drums, tympani, violin,guitar and xylophone by the time he reached his high school. Milt was such a talented young man that he also sang in the choir and picked up the vibraphone by the age of 16. Later he established himself as one of the most prominent figures of the jazz quartet called the Four Sharps. All through his career, Milt's came from Charlie Parker, rather thanHampton, his most prominent precursor on the instrument. He also attempted to attain a hornlike legato with his mallets, while he adopted many ofParker's rhythmic traits. Through his sheer quality as a vibraphonist, Milt became the first authentic bebopmusician on the vibraphone, and was one of the greatest musicians of Gillespie'sown band.His career with The Modern Jazz Quartet which began in 1952 had a prominent place in the development of Milt Jackson's achievements in jazz. "The group wore tailored suits and practiced every aspect of their publicpresentation, from walking on stage to making introductions to thepowerfully subdued arrangements in their playing. They wanted to bringback to jazz the

Marketing Strategy for Business .Marketing & Enterprise .I chose this Essay

Marketing Strategy for Business .Marketing & Enterprise .I chose this company for assignmnet(Midland News Association.Express & - Essay Example Implementation 24 7. Conclusion 24 References 24 1. Executive summary 1.1 Current Position Midland News Association (MNA Media) is the largest independent regional news company in the UK. The company is owned and operated by the Graham family of Wolverhampton. Two of its daily titles, Express & Star and the Shropshire Star, are Britain’s biggest selling regional daily newspapers, and sell more than 200,000 copies everyday. 1.2 Key issues The major concern facing Midland News Association is the generally lackluster trend in the industry. Declining demand constrained the UK newspapers industry over 2006 to 2011, and while the rate of decline is likely to slow down after 2011, forecasted demand remains bleak until 2016 ('Newspapers Industry Profile’, 2013). A lesser but still important concern is that of remaining competitive even while rival regional publications adopt innovative practices to create new products. 2. Corporate Strategy 2.1 Corporate mission/objectives The Express & Star aims to become the biggest-selling regional evening newspaper in Britain (â€Å"About Us†, 2013). Its objectives include providing its subscribers and readers with accurate and timely news on the political, business, lifestyle and social events, and articles of general interest for entertainment, through printed and online publications, in a manner that afford customers easy access. 2.2 Summary of overall position and corporate strategy Strategic pricing. Express and Star fields two types of issues every week. The midweek edition carries the regular features and while there are special interest features, overall the newpaper adopts straightforward news reporting in both its print and e-edition. MNA retained the price of the mid-week issues, but raised the price of the Weekend edition by 30 per cent. The significant price increase is justified by the higher value added and the inclusion of features such as the week-long TV guide which makes the Weekend edition r elevant for the entire week following (Cross, 2013a). Image overhaul. Recently, the Express and Star have have kept pace with competitors’ moves by matching their attempts with a corresponding strategy. Cross (2013a) reported in April a revamp by competitor Birmingham Mail of its weekend paper, Trinity Mirror, intended to boost readership. The new Saturday issue boasts a new design, combined with a launch of its e-edition, improvements to the website, and the launch of a new, part-free Friday edition of which the paper distributed 50,000 copies free throughout the city centre. To match the move Express and Star rebranded its Saturday edition as the ‘Weekend’ edition which included a new supplement featuring ‘a full weekly TV guide, lifestyle and entertainment sections, new columnists, and several puzzles and games pages. Like the Trinity Mirror, Express and Star’s Weekend edition will sell at the higher price of 60p from the previous 45p (Cross, 2013 a). Expansion into mobile publishing. The Express and Star launched in April 2013 an app for Android smartphones which is made available by Google Play online store. The app allows subscribers to view the same image as features in the printed edition.This also allows greater access of readers to MNA’s products, without necessarily being confined in time and space. 3. External and internal analysis 3.1 PESTEL Political – The UK is a democracy with a stable governance system supported by highly consistent policies

Milt Jackson Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Milt Jackson - Essay Example As a member of a Gospel Quartet, Milt got the first chance to perform in public in which he sang tenor. Dizzy Gillespie was instrumental in bringing this great jazz artist to the forefront and Gillespie, hearing his performance at a Detroit night club, brought Milt to New York to perform with his sextet and later with his big band. Milt also had the opportunity to work with great artists such as Howard McGee, Thelonius Monk, Charlie Parker and Woody Herman in the late 1940s. Again he worked with Dizzy between 1950 and 1952, while also recording some Quartet sides with John Lewis, Percy Heath and Kenny Clarke. The big band, renamed as The Modern Jazz Quartet in 1952, played a major role in the next twenty-two years Milt's career and the quartet, which recorded over thirty albums and toured all over the world, also had a prominent place in his career. "By 1974 the MJQ disbanded, and Jackson started a career as a leader of his own groups, performing blues and gospel-oriented Jazz, away from the musical policy of the MJQ. He became associated with producer Norwman Granz, and recorded some twenty albums with some of the finest musicians associated with the producer's label, like Oscar Peterson, Count Basie, Ray Brown, Dizzy Gillespie, etc. In 1981 the MJQ was reunited to perform in Japan and since then Jackson has been combining his own projects with occasional touring with the MJQ." (Milt Jackson: Biography) Therefore, the career development as well as biography of the vibes player Milt Jackson centered on his accomplishments in jazz and this paper undertakes such a biographical account of this great vibraphonist, focusing on his achievements in jazz. As the first vibraphonist to use a slow vibrato, Milt Jackson revolutionized and extended the limits of the vibraharp. The use a slow vibrato helped him in the creation of impulsive outbursts of short notes as well as a better control of the dynamics. "He discovered new possibilities in his instrument, influencing every vibraphonist to follow. With his gift for melodic improvisation Jackson is a master of ballad interpretation, and remains one of the most soulful players in the history of Jazz." (Milt Jackson: Biography) Born in Detroit and Died as one of the most soulful players in the history of Jazz, Jackson had become a conspicuously importantmusician by the middle of his teen-age years and he started to learn guitar at the age of 7, piano lessons at11, and mastered drums, tympani, violin,guitar and xylophone by the time he reached his high school. Milt was such a talented young man that he also sang in the choir and picked up the vibraphone by the age of 16. Later he established himself as one of the most prominent figures of the jazz quartet called the Four Sharps. All through his career, Milt's came from Charlie Parker, rather thanHampton, his most prominent precursor on the instrument. He also attempted to attain a hornlike legato with his mallets, while he adopted many ofParker's rhythmic traits. Through his sheer quality as a vibraphonist, Milt became the first authentic bebopmusician on the vibraphone, and was one of the greatest musicians of Gillespie'sown band.His career with The Modern Jazz Quartet which began in 1952 had a prominent place in the development of Milt Jackson's achievements in jazz. "The group wore tailored suits and practiced every aspect of their publicpresentation, from walking on stage to making introductions to thepowerfully subdued arrangements in their playing. They wanted to bringback to jazz the

Homosexual Marriage Needs to Be Legalized Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Homosexual Marriage Needs to Be Legalized - Essay Example This would never have happened if Charlene and Kate were allowed to legally marry. Today, gay marriage is illegal in most states in America, and this is unconstitutional, as it is violating a fundamental right, which is marriage. The most egregious thing about the issue of denying gay marriage is that there really is not a legitimate argument put forth by the other side which would substantiate keeping an entire class of people from enjoying basic rights. For instance, consider the â€Å"slippery slope† argument. This argument states that if homosexuals were allowed to marry, then the legislatures would have to legalize marriage between man and dog, man and daughter, man and 12-year-old boy. This argument does not hold water for two major reasons – one, marriage between two homosexuals is sanctifying a consensual relationship, and all the other scenarios above would not be. And, two, perhaps most importantly, pedophilia, incest and bestiality are all illegal, probably in all fifty states. Homosexual relationships, on the other hand, are not, and cannot be due to the case of Lawrence v. Texas, a 2003 Supreme Court case which established that sodomy laws are unconstitutional. Therein lies a diffe rence – legislatures cannot be pressured to legalize marriage based upon relationships which are illegal, such as pedophilia, incest and bestiality, therefore the slippery slope argument is not legitimate. Another argument is that marriage is based upon procreation, and, since homosexuals cannot procreate, they should be denied the right to marry. This argument cannot be logically consistent, because, if the argument were to carried out to its logical conclusion, anybody and everybody who would be unable or unwilling to have children would also be denied the right to marry. Your grandmother in the nursing home who met her soul mate at the age of 86? Sorry, grandma, you can't marry because you can't have children anymore. Your sister who had ovarian cancer and had to have a hysterectomy? Sorry, sis, you can't marry either, because you are unable to have children. This is the logical extension of the ?ays can't marry because they cannot procreate argument,one that the supporter s of this argument must adopt if they are to be logically consistent. Of course, the other major argument is that homosexuality is proscribed by the Bible, but this is not a justification for denying a constitutional right. Roe v. Wade4 established this, as it states that morality is not a legitimate concern upon which to base a law that affects one's fundamental rights. And besides, if legislatures are going to start basing their laws on Biblical proscriptions, then they are going to have to outlaw drinking and getting rowdy at Sunday football games, as this would be desecrating the Sabbath, and this is an offense punishable by death according to Exodus 31:14.5 As for the argument that allowing homosexuals to marry would undermine the sanctity of marriage exhibit A to refute this argument would be Kim Kardashian. If her sham of a marriage, 72 days long, is not undermining the sanctity of the institution of marriage, then what is? Of course, it would be unfair to single her out, as there have been countless celebrities whose marriages lasted well short of a year. Not to mention Elizabeth Taylor, who was married eight times. These are just celebrities there are countless people who are not famous who are in the same predicament. Who doesn't have an uncle with five ex-wives? In short, heterosexuals

African American vs. Caucasian Americans Essay Example for Free

African American vs. Caucasian Americans Essay Is Racism a Permanent feature of American Society? Derrick Bell argues in this issue that the prospects for achieving racial equality in the United States are â€Å"illusory for Blacks. Bell reminds us despite the fact of the progress of blacks in United States; the legacy of slavery has left a portion of the race â€Å"with life-long poverty and soul devastating despair†. Bell believes that race consciousness is so imbedded in whites that it is virtually impossible to rise above it. He also argues that â€Å"few whites are able to identify with blacks as a group† and tend to view blacks through â€Å"comforting racial stereotypes†. Bell feels strongly that critical and proper examination of the history of black-white relations supports his conclusion that racism is a permanent feature of American Society. Bell makes some good point about racism in the American society today. The fact that the psychical part of racism is gone does not mean that racism as permanently left American Society. The fact that racism still â€Å"exist† is does not reflect on blacks’ success any longer. Majority of whites had a head start because their generation of success goes so many years back, were as for blacks success was not allowed at a point in time. Blacks have come a long ways over the years but there is still racial discrimination that â€Å"affects† the black population. Dinesh D’Souza does not agree with Bell, he believes that racism is not a permanent Strain of fabric in the American Society. D’Souza distinguishes between racial discrimination that is â€Å"irrational, motivated by bigotry† and which is â€Å"rational from the point of view of the discriminator. † D’Souza admits that such discrimination may be harmful to individual blacks but he rejects any casual linkage between the lagging indicators of blacks’ overall progress with racial discrimination. He believes race is a diminishing force within American society, D’Souza argues that factors other than racial discrimination are the sources of lagging process toward the American Dream. D’Souza reasoning for blacks not achieving more in America is because blacks fail to observe and embrace certain cultural norms of the dominant American Society. He implies that those who are successful exhibit cultural values that promote success. He states blacks need to place a much greater emphasis on overcoming cultural barriers rather than continuing to assert that race is being held by a persistent racism that afflicts America. Black’s generation has come a long way in American Society. Racism shouldn’t be the excuse for the failure in African American success when in 1919- current we have African American first. Slavery started around 1808 and ended in 1865 due to Lincoln Emancipation Proclamation. Racism was still in effect because the fact that blacks had rights was new. Still in all there were blacks who succeed shortly after that time. Madame C. J. Walker was the first African American female who was a self-made millionaire. In 1893 Dr. Daniel Hale Williams was the first black to perform open heart surgery. In 1908 Jack Johnson was the First African-American world heavyweight Champion. In 1993 Toni Morrison was the first African-American to win the Nobel Prize for literature. In 2009 Barack Obama was the first black president of the United States, with the support of some whites. Racism still is â€Å"permanent† due to history but it is not an excuse for Blacks not becoming successful. Derrick bell major argument is that blacks are faced at the bottom of the well. Bell exclaims despite undeniable progress for many, no African American is insulated from incidents of racial discrimination. He states because of our color we are threaten through our lives, careers. Dinesh D’Souza states racism undoubtedly exists, but it no longer has the power to thwart blacks or any other group in achieving their economic, political, and social aspirations. The arguments relates to the overall theme because yes, racism still occurs but it should not pun Blacks from achieving their aspiration. Bell major point is as a Black he experiences the racism. Blacks can work in a white community and experience racism because whites fear the superiority of blacks. D’Souza points out in his argument that racism is the least bit worries blacks should have, when there are black on black crime occurring. Racism should not be such an excuse for â€Å"underclass† blacks not achieving their goals. D’Souza points out the facts where African Americans now live in a country where black man, Colin Powell, who three decades ago could not be served in restaurants, is now a Joint chief staff. Also a white man who supported the nomination of Clarence Thomas, a black man married to a white, for the Supreme Court. D’Souza question is if white racism controls the density of blacks today, how one segment of black community has prospered so much over the past generation. Some unsupported claims in bells argument was he says, â€Å"Modern discrimination is, moreover, not practiced indiscriminately. † Bell implies whites idolize black athletes and entertainers but refuse to hire and work with blacks. Bell also states whites who number individuals blacks among their closest friends approve, or do not oppose, practices that bar selling or renting homes or apartments in their neighborhood to blacks they do not know. Then in his argument he also states that most hotels and restaurants, who offer black patrons courteous treatment, uniformly reject black job applicants. Bell defense for this was â€Å"When did you last see black waiter in a really good restaurant†. These are unsupported claims because this may be true but there are no proven facts that racist is the cause of these arguments. In D’Souza arguments there were not any unsupported claims really found. D’Souza stated his arguments and had accurate information to support his defense. D’Souza makes great points and has a lot of validity in his arguments. He states if blacks are going to reform their community, they have a right to expect that they will be treated equally under law. Hypothetically speaking D’Souza implies if blacks were refused hire on every baseball team in America, blacks would suffer most because they would be denied the chance to play professional baseball. Fans would also suffer because the quality of games would diminish. He says â€Å"But what if a few team-say the New York Yankees and the Los Angeles Dodgers- refused to hire blacks? † African Americans has a group would hardly suffer at all, because they would offer there service to other teams. D’Souza saying the Yankees and the Dodgers would suffer a great deal, because they would be deprived of the chance to hire talented blacks’ players. Eventually the competitive pressure would force those teams to either hire blacks or suffer losses in games and revue. Then he makes another valid point he referenced from Gary Becker pointed out, in free market, selective discrimination imposes the heaviest cost on the discriminator where it should be. Some whites will undoubtedly discriminate against blacks but with deal with them because of the law and taste for profit. *Dinesh D’Souza is an Indian American conservative political commentator, public intellectual and current president of the King’s College in New York City. He graduated from Dartmouth College, where he graduated with a B. A. in English. D’Souza also published a book in 2007 called The Enemy at home: the cultural left and its responsibility for 9/11. In his argument D’Souza used government documents, books, articles and oral very frequently. D’Souza would state his opinion and have facts and documents to support his defense. No, the reading did not significantly add to my knowledge because these are issues that has been discussed for many years. In the article I did learn some new ways of thinking of Racism. This article did broaden my thoughts with the factual evidence the authors used to support their defense. I would recommend this article to be read to those who do not have a clear understanding of the term racism. The subject that was focus on in this case study is racism a permanent feature of American Society? The case study focused on political, social and economic issues. Bell argued blacks will never gain full equality in American and D’Souza argued that blacks have equality and racism is not important issue blacks should be worried about in today society.

View of white women in interracial relationships

View of white women in interracial relationships A Qualitative Analysis of Black Womens Constructions of White Women in Interracial Relationships. Research, especially media discourses suggest and show that black women have a negative discourse towards white women who have interracial relationships. Therefore this exploratory qualitative study used focus groups to investigate how black women construct interracial relationships and white women who have interracial relationships. Social constructionist guided the discourse theory methodology. Participants described Introduction Since the 1980s social constructionism has become an increasingly influential perspective within psychology (e.g., Burr, 1995). Social constructionism suggests that human experience, including perception is mediated historically, culturally and linguistically (Willig, 2007). Therefore for this study, it is important to understand gender and race historically, also black and white unions within a historical context. Interracial relations in a historical context, the construction of race and multiculturalism Historically, interracial unions have played an integral role in the construction of racial categories. Interracial sex and marriage became deviant within the construction of a white identity that was in opposition to blacks. The underlying basis for interracial sexuality as deviant being the claim that blacks and whites are biologically and culturally different. An important part of this concept of race is based on black peoples experiences, constructions and discourses about whites as threats to racial purity (Childs, 2005). The issue of interracial sex and marriage is an integral part of the construction of race and racial groups, with the opposition to and the fear of interracial relationships often used as a means to execute and justify racist ideologies and practices. Thus, Ideas of race as biological difference emerged with slavery, as a justification. So both the construction of white/black relationships as problematic, and the abuse seen during slavery, can be seen as emergi ng along with changing discourses of race. During black slavery, among white peoples interracial sexual relationships was constructed as deviant, and this idea of deviancy was primarily aimed at preventing black male slaves from engaging in sexual acts with white women. It has been documented that those who did engage in interracial sexual relationships would be punished. However, for black people there is a complicated and painful history to black and white interracial relationships, as a result the roots of the hostility are different from white people. The discourses on interracial relationships are complex. The hostility that black communities may have to wards interracial relationships derives from a social and collective memory of violation by whites. Historically blacks as a group have had to deal with the devaluation by whites and this in turn has effective blacks identity which has as a result shaped the attitudes and responses to interracial relationships. It has been well documented that black women were allegedly raped and sexually abused by white slave masters who all play a huge part in the sociohistorical construction of race and the rules of race relations (Childs, 2005). Social constructionist propose that the concept of race, for example the belief that the classification based on skin colour and other skin deep properties like body shape or hair style maps onto meaningful, important biological kinds which is a pseudo biological concept that has been used to justify and rationalise the unequal treatment of groups of people or others (Machery Faucher 2005). Social constructionism became prevalent mainly in the 1970s. It became recognised that the biological concept of subspecies, that is, of population of conspecifics that are genetically and morphologically different from each other, could not be applied to human. Assigning an individual to a race does not buy the inferential power you are usually warranted to expect from a biological kind term. Also, classifications based on different traits such as skin colour, body shape hair etc usually cross cut each other (Brown Armelagos 2001). Thus, the racialist tenet that skin colour and other skin deep properties pick up different biological groups has been assumed to be false. Thus, biology has fuelled the recent racial scepticism of social constructionists, that is, the view that races do not exist. But social constructionists about race are not mere sceptics. They usually underscore the instability and diversity of human beings concept of races. For instance Omi and Winant (2002) state that effort must be made to understand race as an unstable and decentered complex of social meanings constantly being transformed by political struggle. Banton (1970) suggest that this notion is a modern intervention, rooted in the eighteenth century taxonomies of Linnaeus and Blumenbach, for them, there were times or places where people did not have any concept of race (Machery Faucher 2005). The constructionist contribution to the understanding of racialism is important. It suggests that individuals concept of race do not occur in a social vacuum: social environment are important to explain the concept of our concept of race. This helps to identify the diversity of indi viduals concept of race across cultures. There has been growing literature in evolutionary psychology and evolutionary anthropology about racialism. Although no consensus has yet emerged, several proposals have recently attempted to describe the underlying cognitive mechanism responsible for the production of racial concepts (e.g., Hirschfield, 2001; White, 2001; Machery Faucher 2005). The two latter approaches are both a needed supplement to the social constructionist approach. The recurrence of racial classification across cultures and the commonalties between them suggest that racial classifications are the product of some universal psychological disposition. There is much literature that addresses the issue of interracial relationships and marriages specifically, for example both quantitative and qualitative methods have been implemented. Interracial heterosexual relationships have been explored from many viewpoints. Qualitative research has been conducted on black men and white women interracial couples (McNamara, Tempenis, Walton 1999; Rosenblatt, Karis, Powell 1995; Spickard 1989) and quantitative data of black and white attitudes towards interracial dating (Davis Smith 1991). Social sciences have focused on how and why interracial couples have come together, the demographic similarities and differences and the comparisons of interracial relationship compared with same race relationships (Davis 1941; Gaines et al. 1999). Davis (1941) article deals with interrelation between marriage and cast and Gains (1991) research is concerned with the differences between secure and insecure individuals among both sexes in heterosexual interraci al couples. Qualitative studies of interracial relationships has focused on the views, experiences and opinions of the couples and their relationships with society and the community (McNamara et al 1999; Root 2001) Some researchers have suggested that the number of couples, although increasing has remained small because of the lack of acceptance. It has been found that ethnic minority communities at times consider minority individuals that pair with partners as race traitors or whitewashed (Pan, 2000). Yet, there is little research on the ways that interracial couples are socially constructed and the societal responses from black womens towards interracial relationships. Existing research on interracial relationships show that they do not look at examining race as a changing socio historical concept and construct. Researchers have studied interracial relationships without first acknowledging race and racial groups as socially constructed and subject to change and conflict instead they reproduce the idea of race as real and a natural phenomenon. While the latter literature review has provided important perspectives on understanding interracial relationships, the current study is different as the study places an importance on societal responses to interracial relationships from the voices of British black women. Evolved Cognition and Ethnicity and Culture: Cultural Transmission Ethnicity and culture are related phenomena and bear no intrinsic connection to human biological variations or race. Ethnicity refers to cluster of people who have common culture traits that they distinguish from those of other people. People who share a common language, geographic locale or place of origin, religion or sense of history, traditional values, values and so on, are perceived, and view themselves as constituting, an ethnic group (e.g., Jones,1997 Smedley 1999). However, according to Smedley and Smedley (2005) ethnic groups and ethnicity are not fixed, bounded entities, they are flexible and open to change and they are usually self defined (Barth, 1998) Theories of cultural transmission provide the proper framework for integrating the two main traditions in the study of racialism (Richerson Boyd, 2004). The idea is that many beliefs, preferences, reasoning patters are socially learned. Similar to the traditional social learning theory, they are acquired from ones social environment form an individuals cultural parents for instance (Boyd Richerson, 1985). According to Machery Faucher (2005) race is culturally transmitted, which lines with social constructionist reliance on traditional theories of social is learning, that is, with the idea that the concept of race is acquired from an individuals social environment. This in turn gives explanations as to why a culture, at a time, people tend to have the same concept of race. This also explains why different cultures at different times have endorsed the same concepts. The Social Construction of Interracial Couples The ideas of race has been produce and reproduced though the construction of racial groups and social interaction, which had led to consequences in beliefs and practices. Therefore the images and meaning attached to black and white relationships are not simply produced by the black women but are rather constructed, socially, culturally, politically in their society and by the varying social groups (Childs, 2005). Therefore the black womens understanding of their own identities are shaped by the responses of others and the images of how black women oppose to interracial relationships in which exists. Unnatural discourse In British culture interracial relations is probelematised. Interracial sex is treated as a problem. Recent films such as Jungle Fever, Bodyguard and Rising Sun have portrayed interracial sexual relations as acts of deviance (Mencke, 1976). These narratives have been accompanied by severe moral lessons about destructive nature of such unions, which often damage not only the lives of the character but their family and friends too. Whatever the situation, the unifying element of such popular representation is that interracial relationships do not work. Academia controversy often surrounds the culturally authoritative discourse of science. This has been used overtime to justify a multitude of agendas, not least of which has been to ensure a moral argument for slavery and the conquest of the New World. Infused with notions borrowed from Darwins theories of evolution and natural selection, fears expressed in such writings have typically been grounded on notions of purity and degeneration of races through mixing of blood. Typically, researchers conclude that participants in interracial relations are deviant, rebellious or rejected by their racial group (Buttny, 1987; Muhsam, 1990), it is clear that racial categories are bounded within discursive constructs that make any transgression appear abnormal, if not wrong. Sexual relations between black men and white women have generally been located in the discourses of the unnatural. Sexuality between races has been constructed as transgression. Saxton (1995) argues that race thinking rests on class foundation , and it is also the case that ideologies of racism, one articulated, take on a life of their own and assume many contested and varied forms. Hooks (1990) puts forward, that our attempt to destabilise the naturalised discourses that define and construct race and sexuality is confounded by language (Tyner Houston, 2000). Mapping a discourse The current discourse against interracial relationships includes the following. First, it entails a range of racialised masculinities and images of what it means to be a man differentiated by race and class and at times drawing in racist stereotypes of the nineteenth and twentieth centurys. Secondly white femininity is racialised; white women who choose interracial relationships are constructed as sexually loose or sexually radical. Third, the discourse generates a view interracial relationship as transgressing fixed racial or cultural boundaries. These three elements presuppose a fourth, the idea of race as explained earlier as a fixed and essential axis of differentiation and sixth, the idea of cultural differences is tied to race and biological belonging (Frankenberg, 1993). Social Construction of Black women, Black Femininity, Gender and Mixed race as Ideal Research on the issues of black womens, appearance and the marriage market is also important (Childs, 2000). Morrison (1972) wrote that there are devastating effects of persistent European ideals of beauty on the self image of black women. While light skin blacks are evaluated as more attractive and more victorious in terms of income and employment (Hughes Hertel, 1990). This of course plays a huge role in the way that black women construct interracial dating and specifically the white women since the discrimination based on skin colour may be associated with the decision to date interracially as a privileging of lighter skin and the lightest skin of all white (Russell, Wilson Hall 1993; Childs 2005). It is important to understand that there are a dual set of myths which distinguishes the construction of black women from other groups. The social construction of race is dependent on gender categorisation and the social construction of gender is dependent on racial categorisations. This process of using race to define gender has a long standing history. According to White (2001) he argues that nineteenth century scientists often used race to explain gender and gender to explain race. The result of this is the segregation between groups of individuals based on their race and genders; where some groups are portrayed as dominant and normal and others as subordinate are based on social construction , the consequences of this is real and determines the power relations both between and within groups. In an effort to maintain these power relations and structures, cultural myths and symbols which are mainly based on stereotypes are employed. And as such, cultural symbols of black womanhood serve to mask as normalise the inequitable position of black women. As a result of racing gendering, black women find themselves marginalised on two fronts, race and gender. They are margin isled because they are non white. This marginalisation occurs on two levels, the first being that there is a construction of black women in relation to white men. Secondly, there is the construction of black women in relation to white women. Overtime time, these multiple marginalisations resulted in the development and redevelopment of a number if cultural symbols and icon used to represent black womanhood (Zachery, 2009). Dominant discourses: Now Interracial sexual relationships remain controversial both in the United Sates and the United Kingdom. Examining the discourse on interracial relationships brings a range of issues key to comprehending the impact of racism both on black womens experience and worldview and on social organisation more broadly. Interracial relationships continue to be a social issue in the black communities. Most black- white relationships involve a black man and white women according to the UK census. According to Collins (2000) black women remain called upon to accept and love the mixed race children born to brothers friends and relatives who at the same time often represent tangible reminders of their own rejection (2000, 195). Dickson (1993) suggest that interracial relationships between black men and white women along with the high murder rates in black communities, and levels of incarceration are viewed as the source of the shortage of good black men. Although statistics show that there is an increase in black white interracial relationships and marriages, the oppositions to these relationships have not necessarily disappeared. No matter how these relationships are viewed, what are interesting about them are the responses they receive from black women. An in depth analysis on black British womens constructions on heterosexual interracial relationships will provide a better understanding of this phenomenon. Therefore this project will look specifically look at the way in which British black women respond to interracial relationships and specifically their constructions towards white women who have interracial relationships. The project will look at the way black women construct interracial relationtions by asking them about their attitudes and their beliefs of interracial relationships, and popular culture and media depictions. I will discuss the images and discourses that have been constructed about interracial relationships and how these images and discourses contribute to the construction and maintenance of how black women construct white women who have interracial relationships. I approach the study of interracial relationships, understanding these interracial unions as socially constructed. It is important to understand that this will not be a nationwide representative study of attitudes, beliefs or occurrences that can be generalised. Rather this project provides an ethnographic look at black womens constructions through in depth focus groups Method Participants I recruited my participant by handing out a recruitment sheet outside lectures. The recruitment letter explained the nature of the study and if the student wished to participate in the study to please contact me. My participants were either students at London Southbank University or known to me personally. Their age ranged from 16- 45, all of my participants were Black British women; All of my participants were born in Britain. It was made clear to all of the participants that they could withdraw from the study at anytime. Design Discursive analysis provides an ideal opportunity for studying ideology in psychology. In the 1970s the materialization of a new paradigm in social psychology occurred. New paradigm researchers called for a turn to language which was inspired by theories and research which had emerged from other disciplines. This turn to language was the setting of the emergence during the 1980s, in social and developmental psychology and in other major parts of psychology (Parker, 2005). Studies such as Henriques et al, (1984) illustrated how language that is spoken can be organised as patterns of discourse. Discourse had a theoretical basis in the social constructionist approach (e.g., Burr, 2003). The social constructionist perspectives purpose was that understanding the study of human interaction and the linguistic communication is of importance. According to discursive psychology, language does not merely express experiences, rather, language also constitutes experiences and the subjective, psyc hological reality (Potter Wetherell 1987; Shotter 1993; Wetherell 1995); therefore, construction of social reality through the use of language enables discourse analysis to come about. This social process sustains this knowledge through social interactions (Burr, 1995) discourse can alter and adapt overtime; therefore, discourse are historically and culturally identifiable and is analysed through the language employed in the social interactions. This method is what I thought is best suited for my final year project as I was not looking for the participants personal experiences but rather how the participants construct inter-racial relationships and white women who have inter-racial relationships. Potter and Wetherell (1987) introduced discourse to gain a better understanding of social texts through examining social life and social interactions. Its aim was to scrutinise discourse through analysing verbal and written communication. A number of themes are common in discourse analysis these include rhetoric, voice, footing, discursive repertoires and the dialogical nature of talk. Potter and Wetherell 1987; Wetherell Potter 1992 provided some of the best work on social psychology. It was developed as an analysis of racist interpretive repertoire. This entail suggested how discourse functions ideologically. For example a discourse of heterosexuality defines what is deviant. The practice of discourse analysis involves a range of procedures designed to encourage the researchers to process and reprocess their material these include transcription, coding and recoding. According to Potter (2003), Discourse analysis is the study of how to talk and texts are used to perform actions. He suggested that discourse analysis research should centre on four aspects. How language forms and constructs accounts on social things; how actions and social practices are achieved through linguistics; the ideologies of a particular social action, and, looking at psychological concepts through discourse. Therefore this method will be used to analyse the transcript. Black womens constructions towards interracial relationships and white women who have interracial relationships; Transcript of two focus group discussions between young black women will be analysed. An examination of the text will be scrutinised closely, known as coding (Potter Wetherell, 1987) coding helps to select relevant information from the text. However, there will always be parts of discourse in which cannot be analysed; thus the same text can be analysed again, generating further insight (Potter Wetherell, 1987; Wetherell Potter 1992; Willig 1995, 1997, 1998) the data will analyse any key discourse that show from the data and how the data constructs that. The discourse analysis will also pinpoint any interpretive repertoires (Gilbert, Mulkay, 1984) and instances that occur in the text. This will require reading and re- reading the transcript, making various notes and coding gathered by the repertoires. Procedure The process of recruiting participants was not difficult, mainly because some of the participants were known personally to me and that I also recruited LSBU students, therefore the participants were easily accessible. Needless to say, the women who took part in the project did so voluntarily. They also knew they could refuse to answer particular questions, or discontinue with the discussion at any given time. I advertised by handing out a participation information sheet (see Appendix A) to several students. I gave them a brief overview of the study and asked whether they would be interested in taking part in the study. Two focus group discussions took place in a private area in the LSBU library where they were all given consent forms to sign (see Appendix B). Predetermined questions were asked and the process was recorded using a tape recorder and dictaphone. Private matters in regards to relationships were asked therefore all participants were introduced to one another to ensure that there was no discomfort. The nature of the study was explained to all the participants individually and within the focus group discussion so that no offence was taken when the questions were asked amongst one another. I guided the focus group to express both their opinions and thoughts on the subject at hand and ensured that the discussion did not go off tangent, therefore limitations were applied. I then later transcribed the focus group and drew out themes that emerged from the discussion. Materials Recruitment To recruit the participants an information sheet was handed out, which can be found in Appendix A. It was intended to be clear about the criteria of the project whilst also being highly informative. Schedule Participants were instructed to answer questions which can be found in Appendix C Analysis The transcript is one of two focus group discussion about interracial relationships and how black women construct interracial relationships and how they construct white women who have interracial relationships. The first focus group consisted of six young black women and the second consisted four. Several themes emerged from the data. The analysis revealed, through grammatical and stylistic strategies numerous interpretive repertoires Wetherell and Potter (1998): deviation, extrematisation, constructing relationship as sexual, generalisation and hypersexualisaion normalising in order to put themselves in positions to validate their views on white women and interracial relationships in general. Both focus group discussions justify their actions through language as to why they have these views; this is when discourses are visible. Focus group discussion between young black women students Extract 1 discussion transcript 1 (Page 1) interpretive repertoire: Positioning themselves Participants constructed meaning through shared conversation: they mutually positioned themselves using a variety of discursive techniques. The participants also justified their answers by using discursive markers. Sianne like the other black respondents employed a discursive strategy I am not fazed by it, but by also offering disclaimers doesnt bother me. However they give several reasons as to why interracial couples are problematic Sianne; When I see a black man with a white woman Im not phased to be honest as the saying goes Love is Blind. But sometimes I find that when I pass a mixed couple sometimes the man will avoid glancing in my direction and the woman seems tense. (Laughter) From the language used, Sianne and the other black females use discursive strategy by first stating that they are not against interracial couples Im not fazed by it (line 74-76) It doesnt bother me but show signs that the relationship lacks security. For example Sianne states that the man avoids looking at her and the woman seems tense. According to Wetherell and Potter (1992) posits that racism must be viewed as a series of ideological effect with flexible, fluid and varying content. Therefore, racist discourse should not be viewed as static and homogeneous, but as dynamic and contradictory. Some of the participants state that they do not have a problem with an interracial coupling. However, they use language amongst each other witch contradict themselves (Lines 91-92). Saphira: I dont really think anything unless the black guy is really attractive and the white woman is ugly The extract opens with a disclaimer (Hewitt Stokes, 1975) a disclaimer is a verbal devise that anticipates, and rejects, potentially negative attributions. I dont really think anything disclaims possible attribution of intolerance in the light of the comments in which are about to follow unless the black guy is really attractive. Extract 2 discussion transcripts 1 (Page) interpretive repertoire: Constructing relationship as sexual and deviant A significant piece of the opposition from the black women was why a black man would chose to date a white woman. They construct meaning as to why they becoming interracially involved and the implications for black women. Several of the participants construct white women as easy and more inclined to perform oral sex as the reason why a black man will choose to be in a relationship with a white woman. Saphira; I think white woman are more open to trying new things sexually that a black man wouldnt get from a black woman, I think they come across easier .   When asked why a black man would choose to be in a relationship with a white women. A variety of terms was employed by the participants. This included easier (Saphira) and stress free lifestyle (Jamila) open-minded to certain sexual acts (Justina). Justina; I personally think that a black man would be in a sexual relationship with a white woman because, she may be more inclined to perform certain sexual acts that may be a taboo in a black womans eyes and may also be more open-minded to certain sexual acts such as oral sex or oral sex in comparison to a black woman (Lines 96-101). Black women thus positioned interracial relationships as sexual and constructed white women as easier and stress free. It shows that white femininity is racialsied; that white women are easy and are sexually radical. A rhetorical technique employed here is constructing corroboration and consensuses (Edwards et., 1992) white women are more open minded to oral sex acts by saying that more than one women behave this way. This technique is used again by Justina this may be a taboo in black women eyes she positions herself to the category entitlement Extract 3 discussion transcripts 1 and 2 (Page) interpretive repertoire: Shortage of good black men Saphira; When I see a good looking black guy with a white woman, I cant help but be disappointed and look and think why?.   The construction of black and white couples (focusing here on a black man with a white women) as outside the norm, Saphira also constructs that these couplings as deviant (lines 155-156). Tanya: I know this is really judgmentalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦but I automatically think that the black man is not really black! By this I mean he is surrounding by white friends he has never dated a black female and deep down he wishes he was white. Its a bit of a waste inità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ One theme in which was visible in both transcripts was the shortage of good black men. Tanya states in the above extract its a bit of a waste init signifying that black men have value before becoming involved with white women. This construction exposes black racism and opposition to interracial relationships. Tanya also uses a disclaimer, a rhetorical devise that allows her to put forward what may be seen as judgemental views Pricilla: discussed how black men of high status with wealth get with white women because they see them as a symbol of success (Lines 82-83). In lines 82 to 83 Pricella constructs more general oppositional categories of them Extract 4 discussion transcript 1 (Page) interpretive repertoire: Diluting the race Traitor Black communities can act as deterrent to interracial relationships as these relationships are constructed as incompatible with black cultural affinity. In other words for a black man to engage in an intimate relationship with a white women means that one is a traitor to white society and in the process sold out the black society. During the focus group discussion Pricella constructs black men who get with white women as traterish especially African men (lines 242-244). Pricella: doesnt make me feel anything but I aint gona alie I think its traiterish its like they getting with a white women is the ultimate price for them when a black men get status even African men Ooh white women Saphira: also state that people may view the black man as